Brain–machine interfaces use neuronal activity recorded from the brain to establish direct communication with external actuators, such as prosthetic arms. It is hoped that brain–machine interfaces can be used to restore the normal sensorimotor functions of the limbs, but so far they have lacked tactile sensation. Here we report the operation of a brain–machine–brain interface (BMBI) that both controls the exploratory reaching movements of an actuator and allows signalling of artificial tactile feedback through intracortical microstimulation (ICMS) of the primary somatosensory cortex. Monkeys performed an active exploration task in which an actuator (a computer cursor or a virtual-reality arm) was moved using a BMBI that derived motor commands from neuronal ensemble activity recorded in the primary motor cortex. ICMS feedback occurred whenever the actuator touched virtual objects. Temporal patterns of ICMS encoded the artificial tactile properties of each object. Neuronal recordings and ICMS epochs were temporally multiplexed to avoid interference. Two monkeys operated this BMBI to search for and distinguish one of three visually identical objects, using the virtual-reality arm to identify the unique artificial texture associated with each. These results suggest that clinical motor neuroprostheses might benefit from the addition of ICMS feedback to generate artificial somatic perceptions associated with mechanical, robotic or even virtual prostheses.

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• Gait cycle segmentation using inverted pendulum model of walking • Direct integration of accelerations • Real-time algorithm in Matlab/Simulink Real Time Workshop/Real Time Windows Target • Accurate speed estimation with 7% error • Useful for control of prostheses, orthoses, exoskeletons and energy harvesters

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1. State the problem briefly.
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The seven articles in this special section focus on rehabilitation via bio-cooperative control. In this special section, the idea of bio-cooperative control has been applied to different kinds of rehabilitation devices (e.g., exoskeletal robots, end-effector robots, wheelchairs) used for the training of gait or arm movements or for the assessment of entire body activity of healthy subjects and patients with stroke or other neurological disorders.

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I pazienti paraplegici, a causa di una lesione completa del midollo spinale, perdono le afferenze per il controllo motorio e sensitivo della parte inferiore del corpo: i comandi provenienti dalle zone di controllo motorio del cervello non giungono a destinazione e, quindi, i muscoli, pur ancora innervati, non possono essere contratti se le radici motorie di questi ultimi sono ad un livello inferiore rispetto a quello della lesione midollare. Una delle conseguenze è la paralisi degli arti inferiori. In Italia si stima vi siano, ogni anno, circa 1.800 nuovi casi (in prevalenza conseguenza di traumi derivanti da incidenti stradali e da infortuni sul lavoro) ed una popolazione complessiva di circa 80.000 paraplegici.

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